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title: Buen Vivir (Sumak Kawsay)
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A governance theory rooted in Andean indigenous philosophy — constitutionalised in Bolivia (2009) and Ecuador (2008) — that reframes the purpose of governance around collective wellbeing and ecological balance rather than individual rights or GDP growth. The most developed attempt to embed a non-Western ontology into a functioning constitutional framework.

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**Sumak Kawsay** (Kichwa: "living well" or "living fully") and its Aymara equivalent **Suma Qamaña** are concepts from Andean indigenous philosophy that resist easy translation. They describe a way of living in balance — with community, with nature, across generations — that is not about maximising individual welfare or economic growth but about sustaining the conditions for collective flourishing. The Spanish formulation, **Buen Vivir**, is the version that entered constitutional law.

Ecuador's 2008 constitution and Bolivia's 2009 constitution were both drafted through constituent assemblies with significant indigenous participation — [CONAIE](../organisations/conaie.md) was a principal actor in the Ecuadorian process. Both constitutions made moves without precedent in constitutional law:

- **Rights of nature** (Ecuador): Pachamama (the natural world) is granted constitutional rights enforceable through the courts — a direct expression of indigenous relational ontology, where nature is not property to be used but a living system to be respected.
- **Plurinational state** (Bolivia): The state is redefined as plurinational — not a single-nation state with minority rights protections, but a state constituted by multiple nations with co-equal juridical and governance systems. Bolivia recognises 36 indigenous nations, each with the right to administer justice and governance in their territories under their own *usos y costumbres* (customs and practices).
- **Vivir Bien as constitutional purpose**: Both constitutions state Buen Vivir / Vivir Bien as a guiding principle of governance — not a policy objective but a standard against which all state action is measured.

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The critical question — which [Fundación Solón](../organisations/fundacion-solon.md) has documented closely — is the gap between the constitutional design and implementation. Bolivia's government under Morales simultaneously enacted a plurinational constitution and pursued an extractivist economic model (mining, gas, large-scale agriculture) that directly contradicted Vivir Bien as a governance principle. Ecuador faced similar contradictions. This gap is an example of the hypocrisy disqualifier in operation: the constitutional claim and the structural economic reality pointed in opposite directions.

That contradiction does not invalidate the constitutional innovation — it illustrates the DOD standard's usefulness. The question is not "is Bolivia living up to Western liberal standards?" but "is Bolivia living up to its own stated constitutional values?" On that question, the record is mixed and the answer is empirically investigable.

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Buen Vivir is also studied as a potential contribution to governance thinking beyond Latin America. The rights-of-nature framework has been cited in constitutional reform debates in other countries; the plurinational model offers a different approach to indigenous sovereignty than the minority-rights framework dominant in international law. Whether these translate or remain context-specific is an open question.

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*DOD is non-partisan and agnostic to any specific democratic model; inclusion here is not an endorsement of any particular system or movement.*

## Further reading

- Alberto Acosta, *Buen Vivir: Sumak Kawsay — Una oportunidad para imaginar otros mundos* (2012)
- Boaventura de Sousa Santos, *Epistemologies of the South* (2014) — on indigenous knowledge and governance
- Pablo Solón (ed.), *Systemic Alternatives* (2017) — [available online via Fundación Solón](https://fundacionsolon.org)


## See also

- [CONAIE](../organisations/conaie.md)
- [Fundación Solón](../organisations/fundacion-solon.md)
- [Democratic Confederalism](democratic-confederalism.md)
