# CPU

As of 2026-08 Machine learning workloads don't use much CPU so there aren't too many things to tell in this chapter. As CPUs evolve to become more like GPUs this is like to change, so I'm expecting this chapter to evolve along the evolution of the CPUs.

## How many cpu cores do you need

Per 1 accelerator you need:

1. 1 cpu core per process that is tied to the accelerator
2. 1 cpu core for each `DataLoader` worker process - and typically you need 2-4 workers.

2 workers is usually plenty for LMs, especially if the data is already preprocessed.

If you need to do dynamic transforms, which is often the case with computer vision models or VLMs, you may need 3-4 and sometimes more workers.

The goal is to be able to pull from the `DataLoader` instantly, and not block the accelerator's compute, which means that you need to pre-process a bunch of samples for the next iteration, while the current iteration is running. In other words your next batch needs to take no longer than a single iteration accelerator compute of the batch of the same size.

Besides preprocessing if you're pulling dynamically from the cloud instead of local storage you also need to make sure that the data is pre-fetched fast enough to feed the workers that feed the accelerator furnace.

Multiply that by the number of accelerators, add a few cores for the Operation system (let's say 4).

If the node has 8 accelerators, and you have `num_workers`, then you need `8*(num_workers+1)+4`. If you're doing NLP, it'd be usually about 2 workers per accelerator, so `8*(2+1)+4` => 28 cpu cores. If you do CV training, and, say, you need 4 workers per accelerator, then it'd be `8(4+1)+4` => 44 cpu cores.

What happens if you have more very active processes than the total number of cpu cores? Some processes will get preempted (put in the queue for when cpu cores become available) and you absolutely want to avoid any context switching.

But modern cloud offerings typically have 50-100+ cpu-cores so usually there is no problem to have enough cores to go around.

See also [Asynchronous DataLoader](../../training/performance/README.md#asynchronous-dataloader).



### CPU offload

Some frameworks, like [DeepSpeed](https://www.deepspeed.ai/tutorials/zero-offload/) can offload some compute work to CPU without creating a bottleneck. In which case you'd want additional cpu-cores.



## NUMA affinity

See [NUMA affinity](../../training/performance/README.md#numa-affinity).



## Hyperthreads

[Hyper-Threads](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper-threading) double the cpu cores number, by virtualizing each physical core into 2 virtual ones, allowing 2 threads to use the same cpu core at the same time. Depending on the type of workload this feature may or may not increase the overall performance. Intel, the inventor of this technology, suggests a possible 30% performance increase in some situations.

See also [To enable Hyper-Threads or not](../../orchestration/slurm/performance.md#to-enable-hyper-threads-or-not).
