PEP: 583
Title: A Concurrency Memory Model for Python
Author: Jeffrey Yasskin <jyasskin@google.com>
Status: Withdrawn
Type: Informational
Created: 22-Mar-2008
Post-History:


Abstract
========

This PEP describes how Python programs may behave in the presence of
concurrent reads and writes to shared variables from multiple threads.
We use a *happens before* relation to define when variable accesses
are ordered or concurrent.  Nearly all programs should simply use locks
to guard their shared variables, and this PEP highlights some of the
strange things that can happen when they don't, but programmers often
assume that it's ok to do "simple" things without locking, and it's
somewhat unpythonic to let the language surprise them.  Unfortunately,
avoiding surprise often conflicts with making Python run quickly, so
this PEP tries to find a good tradeoff between the two.


Rationale
=========

So far, we have 4 major Python implementations -- CPython, Jython_,
IronPython_, and PyPy_ -- as well as lots of minor ones.  Some of
these already run on platforms that do aggressive optimizations.  In
general, these optimizations are invisible within a single thread of
execution, but they can be visible to other threads executing
concurrently.  CPython currently uses a `GIL`_ to ensure that other
threads see the results they expect, but this limits it to a single
processor.  Jython and IronPython run on Java's or .NET's threading
system respectively, which allows them to take advantage of more cores
but can also show surprising values to other threads.

.. _Jython: http://www.jython.org/

.. _IronPython: http://www.codeplex.com/Wiki/View.aspx?ProjectName=IronPython

.. _PyPy: http://codespeak.net/pypy/dist/pypy/doc/home.html

.. _GIL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Interpreter_Lock

So that threaded Python programs continue to be portable between
implementations, implementers and library authors need to agree on
some ground rules.


A couple definitions
====================

Variable
    A name that refers to an object.  Variables are generally
    introduced by assigning to them, and may be destroyed by passing
    them to ``del``.  Variables are fundamentally mutable, while
    objects may not be.  There are several varieties of variables:
    module variables (often called "globals" when accessed from within
    the module), class variables, instance variables (also known as
    fields), and local variables.  All of these can be shared between
    threads (the local variables if they're saved into a closure).
    The object in which the variables are scoped notionally has a
    ``dict`` whose keys are the variables' names.

Object
    A collection of instance variables (a.k.a. fields) and methods.
    At least, that'll do for this PEP.

Program Order
    The order that actions (reads and writes) happen within a thread,
    which is very similar to the order they appear in the text.

Conflicting actions
    Two actions on the same variable, at least one of which is a write.

Data race
    A situation in which two conflicting actions happen at the same
    time.  "The same time" is defined by the memory model.


Two simple memory models
========================

Before talking about the details of data races and the surprising
behaviors they produce, I'll present two simple memory models.  The
first is probably too strong for Python, and the second is probably
too weak.


Sequential Consistency
----------------------

In a sequentially-consistent concurrent execution, actions appear to
happen in a global total order with each read of a particular variable
seeing the value written by the last write that affected that
variable.  The total order for actions must be consistent with the
program order.  A program has a data race on a given input when one of
its sequentially consistent executions puts two conflicting actions
next to each other.

This is the easiest memory model for humans to understand, although it
doesn't eliminate all confusion, since operations can be split in odd
places.


Happens-before consistency
--------------------------

The program contains a collection of *synchronization actions*, which
in Python currently include lock acquires and releases and thread
starts and joins.  Synchronization actions happen in a global total
order that is consistent with the program order (they don't *have* to
happen in a total order, but it simplifies the description of the
model).  A lock release *synchronizes with* all later acquires of the
same lock.  Similarly, given ``t = threading.Thread(target=worker)``:

* A call to ``t.start()`` synchronizes with the first statement in
  ``worker()``.

* The return from ``worker()`` synchronizes with the return from
  ``t.join()``.

* If the return from ``t.start()`` happens before (see below) a call
  to ``t.isAlive()`` that returns ``False``, the return from
  ``worker()`` synchronizes with that call.

We call the source of the synchronizes-with edge a *release* operation
on the relevant variable, and we call the target an *acquire* operation.

The *happens before* order is the transitive closure of the program
order with the synchronizes-with edges.  That is, action *A* happens
before action *B* if:

* A falls before B in the program order (which means they run in the
  same thread)
* A synchronizes with B
* You can get to B by following happens-before edges from A.

An execution of a program is happens-before consistent if each read
*R* sees the value of a write *W* to the same variable such that:

* *R* does not happen before *W*, and
* There is no other write *V* that overwrote *W* before *R* got a
  chance to see it. (That is, it can't be the case that *W* happens
  before *V* happens before *R*.)

You have a data race if two conflicting actions aren't related by
happens-before.


An example
''''''''''

Let's use the rules from the happens-before model to prove that the
following program prints "[7]"::

    class Queue:
        def __init__(self):
            self.l = []
            self.cond = threading.Condition()

        def get():
            with self.cond:
                while not self.l:
                    self.cond.wait()
                ret = self.l[0]
                self.l = self.l[1:]
                return ret

        def put(x):
            with self.cond:
                self.l.append(x)
                self.cond.notify()

    myqueue = Queue()

    def worker1():
        x = [7]
        myqueue.put(x)

    def worker2():
        y = myqueue.get()
        print y

    thread1 = threading.Thread(target=worker1)
    thread2 = threading.Thread(target=worker2)
    thread2.start()
    thread1.start()

1. Because ``myqueue`` is initialized in the main thread before
   ``thread1`` or ``thread2`` is started, that initialization happens
   before ``worker1`` and ``worker2`` begin running, so there's no way
   for either to raise a NameError, and both ``myqueue.l`` and
   ``myqueue.cond`` are set to their final objects.

2. The initialization of ``x`` in ``worker1`` happens before it calls
   ``myqueue.put()``, which happens before it calls
   ``myqueue.l.append(x)``, which happens before the call to
   ``myqueue.cond.release()``, all because they run in the same
   thread.

3. In ``worker2``, ``myqueue.cond`` will be released and re-acquired
   until ``myqueue.l`` contains a value (``x``). The call to
   ``myqueue.cond.release()`` in ``worker1`` happens before that last
   call to ``myqueue.cond.acquire()`` in ``worker2``.

4. That last call to ``myqueue.cond.acquire()`` happens before
   ``myqueue.get()`` reads ``myqueue.l``, which happens before
   ``myqueue.get()`` returns, which happens before ``print y``, again
   all because they run in the same thread.

5. Because happens-before is transitive, the list initially stored in
   ``x`` in thread1 is initialized before it is printed in thread2.

Usually, we wouldn't need to look all the way into a thread-safe
queue's implementation in order to prove that uses were safe.  Its
interface would specify that puts happen before gets, and we'd reason
directly from that.


.. _PEP 583 hazards:

Surprising behaviors with races
===============================

Lots of strange things can happen when code has data races. It's easy
to avoid all of these problems by just protecting shared variables
with locks. This is not a complete list of race hazards; it's just a
collection that seem relevant to Python.

In all of these examples, variables starting with ``r`` are local
variables, and other variables are shared between threads.


Zombie values
-------------

This example comes from the `Java memory model`_:

    Initially ``p is q`` and ``p.x == 0``.

    ==========  ========
    Thread 1    Thread 2
    ==========  ========
    r1 = p      r6 = p
    r2 = r1.x   r6.x = 3
    r3 = q
    r4 = r3.x
    r5 = r1.x
    ==========  ========

    Can produce ``r2 == r5 == 0`` but ``r4 == 3``, proving that
    ``p.x`` went from 0 to 3 and back to 0.

A good compiler would like to optimize out the redundant load of
``p.x`` in initializing ``r5`` by just re-using the value already
loaded into ``r2``.  We get the strange result if thread 1 sees memory
in this order:

    ==========  ========  ============================================
    Evaluation  Computes  Why
    ==========  ========  ============================================
    r1 = p
    r2 = r1.x   r2 == 0
    r3 = q      r3 is p
    p.x = 3               Side-effect of thread 2
    r4 = r3.x   r4 == 3
    r5 = r2     r5 == 0   Optimized from r5 = r1.x because r2 == r1.x.
    ==========  ========  ============================================


Inconsistent Orderings
----------------------

From `N2177: Sequential Consistency for Atomics`_, and also known as
Independent Read of Independent Write (IRIW).

    Initially, ``a == b == 0``.

    ========  ========  ========  ========
    Thread 1  Thread 2  Thread 3  Thread 4
    ========  ========  ========  ========
    r1 = a    r3 = b    a = 1     b = 1
    r2 = b    r4 = a
    ========  ========  ========  ========

    We may get ``r1 == r3 == 1`` and ``r2 == r4 == 0``, proving both
    that ``a`` was written before ``b`` (thread 1's data), and that
    ``b`` was written before ``a`` (thread 2's data).  See `Special
    Relativity
    <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity>`__ for a
    real-world example.

This can happen if thread 1 and thread 3 are running on processors
that are close to each other, but far away from the processors that
threads 2 and 4 are running on and the writes are not being
transmitted all the way across the machine before becoming visible to
nearby threads.

Neither acquire/release semantics nor explicit memory barriers can
help with this.  Making the orders consistent without locking requires
detailed knowledge of the architecture's memory model, but Java
requires it for volatiles so we could use documentation aimed at its
implementers.

.. _`N2177: Sequential Consistency for Atomics`:
   http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2007/n2177.html


A happens-before race that's not a sequentially-consistent race
---------------------------------------------------------------

From the POPL paper about the Java memory model [#JMM-popl]_.

    Initially, ``x == y == 0``.

    ============  ============
    Thread 1      Thread 2
    ============  ============
    r1 = x        r2 = y
    if r1 != 0:   if r2 != 0:
      y = 42        x = 42
    ============  ============

    Can ``r1 == r2 == 42``???

In a sequentially-consistent execution, there's no way to get an
adjacent read and write to the same variable, so the program should be
considered correctly synchronized (albeit fragile), and should only
produce ``r1 == r2 == 0``.  However, the following execution is
happens-before consistent:

    ============  =====  ======
    Statement     Value  Thread
    ============  =====  ======
    r1 = x        42     1
    if r1 != 0:   true   1
      y = 42             1
    r2 = y        42     2
    if r2 != 0:   true   2
      x = 42             2
    ============  =====  ======

WTF, you are asking yourself.  Because there were no inter-thread
happens-before edges in the original program, the read of x in thread
1 can see any of the writes from thread 2, even if they only happened
because the read saw them.  There *are* data races in the
happens-before model.

We don't want to allow this, so the happens-before model isn't enough
for Python.  One rule we could add to happens-before that would
prevent this execution is:

    If there are no data races in any sequentially-consistent
    execution of a program, the program should have sequentially
    consistent semantics.

Java gets this rule as a theorem, but Python may not want all of the
machinery you need to prove it.


Self-justifying values
----------------------

Also from the POPL paper about the Java memory model [#JMM-popl]_.

    Initially, ``x == y == 0``.

    ============  ============
    Thread 1      Thread 2
    ============  ============
    r1 = x        r2 = y
    y = r1        x = r2
    ============  ============

    Can ``x == y == 42``???

In a sequentially consistent execution, no.  In a happens-before
consistent execution, yes: The read of x in thread 1 is allowed to see
the value written in thread 2 because there are no happens-before
relations between the threads. This could happen if the compiler or
processor transforms the code into:

    ============  ============
    Thread 1      Thread 2
    ============  ============
    y = 42        r2 = y
    r1 = x        x = r2
    if r1 != 42:
      y = r1
    ============  ============

It can produce a security hole if the speculated value is a secret
object, or points to the memory that an object used to occupy.  Java
cares a lot about such security holes, but Python may not.

.. _uninitialized values:

Uninitialized values (direct)
-----------------------------

From several classic double-checked locking examples.

    Initially, ``d == None``.

    ==================  ====================
    Thread 1            Thread 2
    ==================  ====================
    while not d: pass   d = [3, 4]
    assert d[1] == 4
    ==================  ====================

    This could raise an IndexError, fail the assertion, or, without
    some care in the implementation, cause a crash or other undefined
    behavior.

Thread 2 may actually be implemented as::

    r1 = list()
    r1.append(3)
    r1.append(4)
    d = r1

Because the assignment to d and the item assignments are independent,
the compiler and processor may optimize that to::

    r1 = list()
    d = r1
    r1.append(3)
    r1.append(4)

Which is obviously incorrect and explains the IndexError.  If we then
look deeper into the implementation of ``r1.append(3)``, we may find
that it and ``d[1]`` cannot run concurrently without causing their own
race conditions.  In CPython (without the GIL), those race conditions
would produce undefined behavior.

There's also a subtle issue on the reading side that can cause the
value of d[1] to be out of date.  Somewhere in the implementation of
``list``, it stores its contents as an array in memory. This array may
happen to be in thread 1's cache.  If thread 1's processor reloads
``d`` from main memory without reloading the memory that ought to
contain the values 3 and 4, it could see stale values instead.  As far
as I know, this can only actually happen on Alphas and maybe Itaniums,
and we probably have to prevent it anyway to avoid crashes.


Uninitialized values (flag)
---------------------------

From several more double-checked locking examples.

    Initially, ``d == dict()`` and ``initialized == False``.

    ===========================  ====================
    Thread 1                     Thread 2
    ===========================  ====================
    while not initialized: pass  d['a'] = 3
    r1 = d['a']                  initialized = True
    r2 = r1 == 3
    assert r2
    ===========================  ====================

    This could raise a KeyError, fail the assertion, or, without some
    care in the implementation, cause a crash or other undefined
    behavior.

Because ``d`` and ``initialized`` are independent (except in the
programmer's mind), the compiler and processor can rearrange these
almost arbitrarily, except that thread 1's assertion has to stay after
the loop.


Inconsistent guarantees from relying on data dependencies
---------------------------------------------------------

This is a problem with Java ``final`` variables and the proposed
`data-dependency ordering`_ in C++0x.

    First execute::

        g = []
        def Init():
            g.extend([1,2,3])
            return [1,2,3]
        h = None

    Then in two threads:

    ===================  ==========
    Thread 1             Thread 2
    ===================  ==========
    while not h: pass    r1 = Init()
    assert h == [1,2,3]  freeze(r1)
    assert h == g        h = r1
    ===================  ==========

    If h has semantics similar to a Java ``final`` variable (except
    for being write-once), then even though the first assertion is
    guaranteed to succeed, the second could fail.

Data-dependent guarantees like those ``final`` provides only work if
the access is through the final variable.  It's not even safe to
access the same object through a different route.  Unfortunately,
because of how processors work, final's guarantees are only cheap when
they're weak.

.. _data-dependency ordering:
   http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2008/n2556.html


The rules for Python
====================

The first rule is that Python interpreters can't crash due to race
conditions in user code.  For CPython, this means that race conditions
can't make it down into C.  For Jython, it means that
NullPointerExceptions can't escape the interpreter.

Presumably we also want a model at least as strong as happens-before
consistency because it lets us write a simple description of how
concurrent queues and thread launching and joining work.

Other rules are more debatable, so I'll present each one with pros and
cons.


Data-race-free programs are sequentially consistent
---------------------------------------------------

We'd like programmers to be able to reason about their programs as if
they were sequentially consistent.  Since it's hard to tell whether
you've written a happens-before race, we only want to require
programmers to prevent sequential races.  The Java model does this
through a complicated definition of causality, but if we don't want to
include that, we can just assert this property directly.


No security holes from out-of-thin-air reads
--------------------------------------------

If the program produces a self-justifying value, it could expose
access to an object that the user would rather the program not see.
Again, Java's model handles this with the causality definition.  We
might be able to prevent these security problems by banning
speculative writes to shared variables, but I don't have a proof of
that, and Python may not need those security guarantees anyway.


Restrict reorderings instead of defining happens-before
--------------------------------------------------------

The .NET [#CLR-msdn]_ and x86 [#x86-model]_ memory models are based on
defining which reorderings compilers may allow.  I think that it's
easier to program to a happens-before model than to reason about all
of the possible reorderings of a program, and it's easier to insert
enough happens-before edges to make a program correct, than to insert
enough memory fences to do the same thing.  So, although we could
layer some reordering restrictions on top of the happens-before base,
I don't think Python's memory model should be entirely reordering
restrictions.


Atomic, unordered assignments
-----------------------------

Assignments of primitive types are already atomic.  If you assign
``3<<72 + 5`` to a variable, no thread can see only part of the value.
Jeremy Manson suggested that we extend this to all objects.  This
allows compilers to reorder operations to optimize them, without
allowing some of the more confusing `uninitialized values`_.  The
basic idea here is that when you assign a shared variable, readers
can't see any changes made to the new value before the assignment, or
to the old value after the assignment. So, if we have a program like:

    Initially, ``(d.a, d.b) == (1, 2)``, and ``(e.c, e.d) == (3, 4)``.
    We also have ``class Obj(object): pass``.

    =========================  =========================
    Thread 1                   Thread 2
    =========================  =========================
    r1 = Obj()                 r3 = d
    r1.a = 3                   r4, r5 = r3.a, r3.b
    r1.b = 4                   r6 = e
    d = r1                     r7, r8 = r6.c, r6.d
    r2 = Obj()
    r2.c = 6
    r2.d = 7
    e = r2
    =========================  =========================

    ``(r4, r5)`` can be ``(1, 2)`` or ``(3, 4)`` but nothing else, and
    ``(r7, r8)`` can be either ``(3, 4)`` or ``(6, 7)`` but nothing
    else.  Unlike if writes were releases and reads were acquires,
    it's legal for thread 2 to see ``(e.c, e.d) == (6, 7) and (d.a,
    d.b) == (1, 2)`` (out of order).

This allows the compiler a lot of flexibility to optimize without
allowing users to see some strange values.  However, because it relies
on data dependencies, it introduces some surprises of its own.  For
example, the compiler could freely optimize the above example to:

    =========================  =========================
    Thread 1                   Thread 2
    =========================  =========================
    r1 = Obj()                 r3 = d
    r2 = Obj()                 r6 = e
    r1.a = 3                   r4, r7 = r3.a, r6.c
    r2.c = 6                   r5, r8 = r3.b, r6.d
    r2.d = 7
    e = r2
    r1.b = 4
    d = r1
    =========================  =========================

As long as it didn't let the initialization of ``e`` move above any of
the initializations of members of ``r2``, and similarly for ``d`` and
``r1``.

This also helps to ground happens-before consistency.  To see the
problem, imagine that the user unsafely publishes a reference to an
object as soon as she gets it.  The model needs to constrain what
values can be read through that reference.  Java says that every field
is initialized to 0 before anyone sees the object for the first time,
but Python would have trouble defining "every field".  If instead we
say that assignments to shared variables have to see a value at least
as up to date as when the assignment happened, then we don't run into
any trouble with early publication.


Two tiers of guarantees
-----------------------

Most other languages with any guarantees for unlocked variables
distinguish between ordinary variables and volatile/atomic variables.
They provide many more guarantees for the volatile ones.  Python can't
easily do this because we don't declare variables.  This may or may
not matter, since python locks aren't significantly more expensive
than ordinary python code.  If we want to get those tiers back, we could:

1. Introduce a set of atomic types similar to Java's [#Java-atomics]_
   or C++'s [#Cpp-atomics]_.  Unfortunately, we couldn't assign to
   them with ``=``.

2. Without requiring variable declarations, we could also specify that
   *all* of the fields on a given object are atomic.

3. Extend the ``__slots__`` mechanism [#slots]_ with a parallel
   ``__volatiles__`` list, and maybe a ``__finals__`` list.


Sequential Consistency
----------------------

We could just adopt sequential consistency for Python.
This avoids all of the `hazards <PEP 583 hazards_>`_ mentioned above,
but it prohibits lots of optimizations too.
As far as I know, this is the current model of CPython,
but if CPython learned to optimize out some variable reads,
it would lose this property.

If we adopt this, Jython's ``dict`` implementation may no longer be
able to use ConcurrentHashMap because that only promises to create
appropriate happens-before edges, not to be sequentially consistent
(although maybe the fact that Java volatiles are totally ordered
carries over). Both Jython and IronPython would probably need to use
`AtomicReferenceArray
<http://java.sun.com/javase/6/docs/api/java/util/concurrent/atomic/AtomicReferenceArray.html>`__
or the equivalent for any ``__slots__`` arrays.


Adapt the x86 model
-------------------

The x86 model is:

1. Loads are not reordered with other loads.
2. Stores are not reordered with other stores.
3. Stores are not reordered with older loads.
4. Loads may be reordered with older stores to different locations but
   not with older stores to the same location.
5. In a multiprocessor system, memory ordering obeys causality (memory
   ordering respects transitive visibility).
6. In a multiprocessor system, stores to the same location have a
   total order.
7. In a multiprocessor system, locked instructions have a total order.
8. Loads and stores are not reordered with locked instructions.

In acquire/release terminology, this appears to say that every store
is a release and every load is an acquire.  This is slightly weaker
than sequential consistency, in that it allows `inconsistent
orderings`_, but it disallows `zombie values`_ and the compiler
optimizations that produce them.  We would probably want to weaken the
model somehow to explicitly allow compilers to eliminate redundant
variable reads.  The x86 model may also be expensive to implement on
other platforms, although because x86 is so common, that may not
matter much.


Upgrading or downgrading to an alternate model
----------------------------------------------

We can adopt an initial memory model without totally restricting
future implementations.  If we start with a weak model and want to get
stronger later, we would only have to change the implementations, not
programs.  Individual implementations could also guarantee a stronger
memory model than the language demands, although that could hurt
interoperability.  On the other hand, if we start with a strong model
and want to weaken it later, we can add a ``from __future__ import
weak_memory`` statement to declare that some modules are safe.


Implementation Details
======================

The required model is weaker than any particular implementation.  This
section tries to document the actual guarantees each implementation
provides, and should be updated as the implementations change.


CPython
-------

Uses the GIL to guarantee that other threads don't see funny
reorderings, and does few enough optimizations that I believe it's
actually sequentially consistent at the bytecode level.  Threads can
switch between any two bytecodes (instead of only between statements),
so two threads that concurrently execute::

    i = i + 1

with ``i`` initially ``0`` could easily end up with ``i==1`` instead
of the expected ``i==2``.  If they execute::

    i += 1

instead, CPython 2.6 will always give the right answer, but it's easy
to imagine another implementation in which this statement won't be
atomic.


PyPy
----

Also uses a GIL, but probably does enough optimization to violate
sequential consistency.  I know very little about this implementation.


Jython
------

Provides true concurrency under the `Java memory model`_ and stores
all object fields (except for those in ``__slots__``?) in a
`ConcurrentHashMap
<http://java.sun.com/javase/6/docs/api/java/util/concurrent/ConcurrentHashMap.html>`__,
which provides fairly strong ordering guarantees.  Local variables in
a function may have fewer guarantees, which would become visible if
they were captured into a closure that was then passed to another
thread.


IronPython
----------

Provides true concurrency under the CLR memory model, which probably
protects it from `uninitialized values`_.  IronPython uses a locked
map to store object fields, providing at least as many guarantees as
Jython.


References
==========
* Alternatives to SC, a thread on the cpp-threads mailing list,
   which includes lots of good examples.
   (http://www.decadentplace.org.uk/pipermail/cpp-threads/2007-January/001287.html)

* python-safethread, a patch by Adam Olsen for CPython
   that removes the GIL and statically guarantees that all objects
   shared between threads are consistently
   locked. (http://code.google.com/p/python-safethread/)
* N2480: A Less Formal Explanation of the
   Proposed C++ Concurrency Memory Model, Hans Boehm
   (http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2007/n2480.html)


.. _Java Memory Model: http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jls/third_edition/html/memory.html

.. _sequentially consistent: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequential_consistency

.. [#JMM-popl] The Java Memory Model, by Jeremy Manson, Bill Pugh, and
   Sarita Adve
   (http://www.cs.umd.edu/users/jmanson/java/journal.pdf). This paper
   is an excellent introduction to memory models in general and has
   lots of examples of compiler/processor optimizations and the
   strange program behaviors they can produce.

.. [#CLR-msdn] Memory Models: Understand the Impact of Low-Lock
   Techniques in Multithreaded Apps, Vance Morrison
   (http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/magazine/cc163715.aspx)

.. [#x86-model] Intel(R) 64 Architecture Memory Ordering White Paper
   (http://www.intel.com/products/processor/manuals/318147.pdf)

.. [#Java-atomics] Package java.util.concurrent.atomic
   (http://java.sun.com/javase/6/docs/api/java/util/concurrent/atomic/package-summary.html)

.. [#Cpp-atomics] C++ Atomic Types and Operations, Hans Boehm and
   Lawrence Crowl
   (http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2007/n2427.html)

.. [#slots] __slots__ (http://docs.python.org/ref/slots.html)


Acknowledgements
================

Thanks to Jeremy Manson and Alex Martelli for detailed discussions on
what this PEP should look like.


Copyright
=========

This document has been placed in the public domain.
